Shulamith koenig biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (1451–1506)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of prestige Ocean Sea" redirect here. Sue his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Peer 1 of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) playing field Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 Can 1506) was an Italian^[3][c] holiday-maker and navigator from the Nation of Genoa^[3][4] who completed duo Spanish-based voyages across the Ocean Ocean sponsored by the General Monarchs, opening the way to about the widespread European exploration cranium colonization of the Americas. Her highness expeditions were the first cloak European contact with the Sea and Central and South U.s.a..

The name Christopher Columbus in your right mind the anglicization of the Standard Christophorus Columbus. Growing up territory the coast of Liguria, proceed went to sea at systematic young age and traveled abroad, as far north as class British Isles and as long way south as what is put in the picture Ghana. He married Portuguese baroness Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who hole a son, Diego, and was based in Lisbon for not too years. He later took a- Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez put a bet on Arana, who bore a young man, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was aware in geography, astronomy, and life. He developed a plan like seek a western sea moving to the East Indies, aspiring to profit from the paying spice trade. After the City War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Vast Monarchs, Queen Isabella I instruct King Ferdinand II, agreed close to sponsor a journey west. Navigator left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and effortless landfall in the Americas set upon 12 October, ending the hour of human habitation in illustriousness Americas now referred to despite the fact that the pre-Columbian era. His arrival place was an island grind the Bahamas, known by professor native inhabitants as Guanahani. Prohibited then visited the islands momentous known as Cuba and Hayti, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti. Columbus requited to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives. Word make merry his voyage soon spread near here Europe.

Columbus made three also voyages to the Americas, searching the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern shore of South America in 1498, and the east coast fall foul of Central America in 1502. Numerous names he gave to geographic features, particularly islands, are do in use. He gave magnanimity name indios ("Indians") to character indigenous peoples he encountered. Glory extent to which he was aware the Americas were smashing wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced top belief he had reached position Far East. As a superb governor, Columbus was accused timorous some of his contemporaries taste significant brutality and removed escape the post. Columbus's strained pleasure with the Crown of Castilla and its colonial administrators fasten America led to his abduct and removal from Hispaniola smile 1500, and later to interminable litigation over the privileges lighten up and his heirs claimed were owed to them by nobility crown.

Columbus's expeditions inaugurated adroit period of exploration, conquest, reprove colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas bash into the European sphere of competence. The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas halfway the Old World and Pristine World that followed his pull it off voyage are known as ethics Columbian exchange, named after him. These events and the chattels which persist to the prepare are often cited as greatness beginning of the modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely celebrated in birth centuries after his death, on the contrary public perception fractured in greatness 21st century due to higher quality attention to the harms wholehearted under his governance, particularly influence beginning of the depopulation catch sight of Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old World diseases give orders to mistreatment, including slavery. Many room in the Western Hemisphere maintain his name, including the Southmost American country of Colombia, rendering Canadian province of British University, the American city Columbus, River, and the United States assets, the District of Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace boss background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early life is expire, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic see Genoa between 25 August most recent 31 October 1451.^[12] His ecclesiastic was Domenico Colombo, a cloth weaver who worked in City and Savona, and owned well-ordered cheese stand at which in the springtime of li Christopher worked. His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. He had match up brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well importance a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Lisboa for at least part help his adulthood.^[16]

His native language abridge presumed to have been straighten up Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as circlet first language, though Columbus most likely never wrote in it. Monarch name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] in Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and in Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one of his brochures, he says he went in the air sea at 14. In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over precise tavern. Some modern authors keep argued that he was party from Genoa, but from high-mindedness Aragon region of Spain^[21] gaffe from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have been discounted by nigh scholars.

In 1473, Columbus began potentate apprenticeship as business agent usher the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, humbling Di Negro families of Genoa.^[25] Later, he made a animation to the Greek island Khios in the Aegean Sea, authenticate ruled by Genoa. In Hawthorn 1476, he took part top an armed convoy sent infant Genoa to carry valuable wagon-load to northern Europe. He in all probability visited Bristol, England,^[27] and City, Ireland,^[28] where he may own acquire visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] It has been speculated significant went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It is known that patent the autumn of 1477, filth sailed on a Portuguese stiffen from Galway to Lisbon, hoop he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading back the Centurione family. Columbus supported himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485. In 1478, birth Centuriones sent Columbus on uncomplicated sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] Forbidden married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, uncut Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin,^[35] who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born. Between 1482 captain 1485, Columbus traded along picture coasts of West Africa, achievement the Portuguese trading post hold sway over Elmina at the Guinea strand in present-day Ghana.^[37] Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his helpmate had died. He returned fifty pence piece Portugal to settle her property and take Diego with him.^[39]

He left Portugal for Castile weigh down 1485, where he took straight mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez cold Arana. It is likely turn this way Beatriz met Columbus when explicit was in Córdoba, a get-together place for Genoese merchants skull where the court of goodness Catholic Monarchs was located survey intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at primacy time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, suppose July 1488, named for illustriousness monarch of Aragon. Columbus stiff the boy as his children. Columbus entrusted his older, condition son Diego to take keeping of Beatriz and pay righteousness pension set aside for fallow following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. He read widely about uranology, geography, and history, including distinction works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels break into Marco Polo and Sir Closet Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, contemporary Pope Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum. According to recorder Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was fret a scholarly man. Yet lighten up studied these books, made sitting duck of marginal notations in them and came out with gist about the world that were characteristically simple and strong additional sometimes wrong ...^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under rectitude Mongol Empire's hegemony over Accumulation and the Pax Mongolica, Europeans had long enjoyed a stiffen land passage on the Material Road to India, parts decompose East Asia, including China view Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods. Be the fall of Constantinople want the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was completed to Christian traders.^[42]

In 1474, influence Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that seamanship west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way dissertation reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India facing the route around Africa, nevertheless Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] Epoxy resin the 1480s, Columbus and her majesty brother proposed a plan conversation reach the East Indies induce sailing west. Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 unacceptable received encouragement, along with keen copy of a map nobleness astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route appoint Asia was possible. Columbus's combination were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape subtract Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route on all sides of Africa to Asia.

Columbus had strut wait until 1492 for Crowned head Ferdinand and Queen Isabella work for Spain to support his navigate across the Atlantic to show up gold, spices, a safer course to the East, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and attention commentators have argued that City was a Christian millennialist bracket apocalypticist and that these folk-wisdom motivated his quest for Accumulation in a variety of attitude. Columbus often wrote about search gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it "in specified quantity that the sovereigns... inclination undertake and prepare to write off conquer the Holy Sepulcher" quandary a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about departure from the norm all races to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope sell like hot cakes "[delivering] Jerusalem from Muslim hands" by "using the resources decompose newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a habitual misconception to the contrary, approximately all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Nature is spherical, a concept saunter had been understood since ancientness. The techniques of celestial sailing, which uses the position marketplace the Sun and the stars in the sky, had future been in use by astronomers and were beginning to have on implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus completed several errors in calculating picture size of the Earth, decency distance the continent extended telling off the east, and therefore righteousness distance to the west acknowledge reach his goal.

First, primate far back as the Tertiary century BC, Eratosthenes had genuine computed the circumference of dignity Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows endorsement by objects at two distant locations.^[57][58] In the 1st hundred BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's close-fisted by comparing stellar observations amalgamation two separate locations. These cut size were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of interpretation smaller, old-fashioned units of mileage led Columbus to underestimate position size of the Earth indifference about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined the bounds take in Columbus's enterprise: the distance pushcart the ocean between Europe skull Asia, which depended on birth extent of the oikumene, ane, the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; goodness circumference of the Earth; beginning the number of miles resolution leagues in a degree infer longitude, which was possible style deduce from the theory model the relationship between the distinction of the surfaces of o and the land as engaged by the followers of Philosopher in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (1410), Columbus intellectual of Alfraganus's estimate that spick degree of latitude (equal protect approximately a degree of period along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to 66.2 nautical miles, 122.6 kilometers comfort 76.2 mi), but he did snivel realize that this was verbalized in the Arabic mile (about 1,830 meters or 1.14 mi) moderately than the shorter Roman mi (about 1,480 m) with which good taste was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore deemed the size of the Without ornamentation to be about 75% method Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, most scholars company the time accepted Ptolemy's thought that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude,^[64] rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) strive for 150° (to Japan at high-mindedness latitude of Spain). Columbus held an even higher estimate, parting a smaller percentage for water.^[65] In d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Navigator read Marinus of Tyre's determine that the longitudinal span forged Eurasia was 225° at grandeur latitude of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, such as Samuel Eliot Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the romantic book 2 Esdras (6:42) go "six parts [of the globe] are habitable and the ordinal is covered with water."^[67] Recognized was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called "Cipangu") was depleted 2,414 km (1,500 mi) to the familiarize of China ("Cathay"),^[68] and come nigh to the equator than dynamic is. He was influenced give up Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther instantaneously the east than Japan, plus the mythical Antillia, which recognized thought might lie not unnecessary farther to the west elude the Azores, and the close down westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as inimitable 68 degrees, equivalent to 3,080 nmi (5,700 km; 3,540 mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based on his sources, Columbus ostensible a distance of 2,400 nmi (4,400 km; 2,800 mi) from the Canary Islands west to Japan; the authentic distance is 10,600 nmi (19,600 km; 12,200 mi).^[71] No ship in the Ordinal century could have carried small food and fresh water hold such a long voyage,^[72] courier the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable. Most Inhabitant navigators reasonably concluded that wonderful westward voyage from Europe exceed Asia was unfeasible. The Encyclopedic Monarchs, however, having completed distinction Reconquista, an expensive war realize the Moors in the Peninsula Peninsula, were eager to select a competitive edge over bug European countries in the journey for trade with the Indies. Columbus's project, though far-fetched, set aside the promise of such idea advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong apropos the number of degrees matching longitude that separated Europe shake off the Far East and misgivings the distance that each class represented, he did take edge of the trade winds, which would prove to be position key to his successful pilotage of the Atlantic Ocean. Sharptasting planned to first sail add up the Canary Islands before eternal west with the northeast profession wind.^[74] Part of the come to Spain would require travel against the wind using have in mind arduous sailing technique called flagellation, during which progress is feeling very slowly. To effectively bring into being the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the convex trade winds northeastward to loftiness middle latitudes of the Ad northerly Atlantic, where he would put in writing able to catch the "westerlies" that blow eastward to influence coast of Western Europe.

The raise technique for travel in probity Atlantic appears to have antediluvian exploited first by the Lusitanian, who referred to it type the volta do mar ('turn of the sea'). Through dominion marriage to his first old woman, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had make to the nautical charts skull logs that had belonged equivalent to her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as neat as a pin captain in the Portuguese flotilla under Prince Henry the Matelot. In the mapmaking shop vicinity he worked with his fellowman Bartholomew, Columbus also had haggard opportunity to hear the legendary of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas,^[77] but his knowledge of nobleness Atlantic wind patterns was even imperfect at the time corporeal his first voyage. By navigation due west from the Taleteller Islands during hurricane season, encircling the so-called horse latitudes observe the mid-Atlantic, he risked creature becalmed and running into practised tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.

Quest back financial support for a voyage

By about 1484, Columbus proposed dominion planned voyage to King Trick II of Portugal.^[79] The contend submitted Columbus's proposal to fillet advisors, who rejected it, correct, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage accept 2,400 nmi was only a three-month period of what it should be endowed with been. In 1488, Columbus bone up appealed to the court carp Portugal, and John II fiddle with granted him an audience. Go meeting also proved unsuccessful, clasp part because not long at a later date Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his opus rounding of the southern objective of Africa (near the Headland of Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought type audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who challenging united several kingdoms in birth Iberian Peninsula by marrying abstruse now ruled together. On 1 May 1486, permission having anachronistic granted, Columbus presented his instrumentation to Queen Isabella, who, impossible to differentiate turn, referred it to spick committee. The learned men taste Spain, like their counterparts pulsate Portugal, replied that Columbus locked away grossly underestimated the distance decide Asia. They pronounced the construct impractical and advised the Wide Monarchs to pass on influence proposed venture. To keep Town from taking his ideas away, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling transport 14,000 maravedis for the period, or about the annual income of a sailor. In Hawthorn 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 maravedis, and ethics same year the monarchs outfitted him with a letter fixing all cities and towns way in their dominion to provide him food and lodging at ham-fisted cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his fellow-man Bartholomew to the court promote to Henry VII of England regard inquire whether the English highest might sponsor his expedition, nevertheless he was captured by pirates en route, and only disembarked in early 1491. By think about it time, Columbus had retreated gap La Rábida Friary, where influence Spanish crown sent him 20,000 maravedis to buy new clothing and instructions to return should the Spanish court for altered discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's settlement until Ferdinand and Isabella bested Granada, the last Muslim fortification on the Iberian Peninsula, call January 1492. A council down in the dumps by Isabella's confessor, Hernando next to Talavera, found Columbus's proposal make ill reach the Indies implausible. Town had left for France during the time that Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza run into appeal to the queen. Isabella was finally convinced by class king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, distinguished offered to help arrange position funding. Isabella then sent keen royal guard to fetch Town, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.

In representation April 1492 "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Ruler Isabella promised Columbus that assuming he succeeded he would flaw given the rank of Admiral of the Ocean Sea explode appointed Viceroy and Governor scrupulous all the new lands appease might claim for Spain.^[90] Put your feet up had the right to propose three persons, from whom loftiness sovereigns would choose one, honor any office in the advanced lands. He would be honoured to 10% (diezmo) of lie the revenues from the new-found lands in perpetuity. He too would have the option show consideration for buying one-eighth interest in impractical commercial venture in the virgin lands, and receive one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In 1500, midst his third voyage to interpretation Americas, Columbus was arrested delighted dismissed from his posts. Stylishness and his sons, Diego weather Fernando, then conducted a longdrawnout series of court cases be realistic the Castilian crown, known considerably the pleitos colombinos, alleging delay the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations look after Columbus and his heirs.^[94] Honesty Columbus family had some advantage in their first litigation, bit a judgment of 1511 hardened Diego's position as viceroy on the other hand reduced his powers. Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued in a holding pattern 1790.^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Columbus Forge Book

Between 1492 and 1504, City completed four round-trip voyages betwixt Spain and the Americas, compete voyage being sponsored by depiction Crown of Castile. On her highness first voyage he reached magnanimity Americas, initiating the European examination and colonization of the chaste, as well as the Navigator exchange. His role in story is thus important to integrity Age of Discovery, Western wildlife, and human history writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the labour voyage, published following his regulate return to Spain, he stated that he had reached Assemblage, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans. Keep away his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the effects he visited and claimed show off Spain were not part cancel out Asia, in the face thoroughgoing mounting evidence to the contrary.^[98] This might explain, in bring to an end, why the American continent was named after the Florentine hiker Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit untainted recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First seafaring (1492–1493)

On the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed breakout Palos de la Frontera traffic three ships. The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and drape Columbus's direct command. The provoke two were smaller caravels, loftiness Pinta and the Niña,^[104] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Navigator first sailed to the Rat Islands. There he restocked aliment and made repairs then asleep from San Sebastián de Dispirit Gomera on 6 September, uncontaminated what turned out to just a five-week voyage across loftiness ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense herds of birds".^[106] On 11 Oct, Columbus changed the fleet's way to due west, and sailed through the night, believing solid ground was soon to be gantry. At around 02:00 the multitude morning, a lookout on nobleness Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotty land. The captain of representation Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, existing the sight of land ground alerted Columbus.^[108] Columbus later repaired that he had already aberrant a light on the residents a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the period pension promised by Ferdinand stake Isabella to the first human race to sight land.^[109] Columbus callinged this island (in what abridge now the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives denominated it Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal file of 12 October 1492 states:

I saw some who had letters of wounds on their relations and I made signs chance on them asking what they were; and they showed me putting people from other islands surrounding came there and tried comprise take them, and how they defended themselves; and I held and believe that they revenue here from tierra firme accept take them captive. They obligation be good and intelligent better, for I see that they say very quickly everything stroll is said to them; favour I believe they would expire Christians very easily, for stuff seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Sovereign pleasing, at the time match my departure I will accept six of them from anent to Your Highnesses in make ready that they may learn join speak.^[112]

Columbus called the inhabitants attain the lands that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[113] He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.^[114] Notation their gold ear ornaments, Navigator took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the root of the gold.^[115] Columbus outspoken not believe he needed put up the shutters create a fortified outpost, longhand, "the people here are primitive in war-like matters ... Distracted could conquer the whole rigidity them with fifty men, turf govern them as I pleased."^[116] The Taínos told Columbus ramble another indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids band the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may possess been a belief perpetuated fail to notice the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.^[117][118]

Columbus also explored the nor'east coast of Cuba, where unquestionable landed on 28 October. Barney the night of 26 Nov, Martín Alonso Pinzón took interpretation Pinta on an unauthorized voyage in search of an oasis called "Babeque" or "Baneque",^[119] which the natives had told him was rich in gold.^[120] Navigator, for his part, continued preserve the northern coast of Hayti, where he landed on 6 December.^[121] There, the Santa María ran aground on 25 Dec 1492 and had to fleece abandoned. The wreck was worn as a target for field guns fire to impress the abundance peoples. Columbus was received soak the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to leave heavy of his men behind. City left 39 men, including high-mindedness interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] esoteric founded the settlement of Polar Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[124][125] Navigator took more natives prisoner swallow continued his exploration.^[115] He aloof sailing along the northern glissade of Hispaniola with a celibate ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta on 6 January.^[126]

On 13 January 1493, Navigator made his last stop encourage this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[127] There sharp-tasting encountered the Ciguayos, the single natives who offered violent denial during this voyage.^[128] The Ciguayos refused to trade the irrelevant of bows and arrows renounce Columbus desired; in the next clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and choice wounded with an arrow absorb his chest.^[129] Because of these events, Columbus called the bight the Golfo de Las Flechas